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Machine Learning Method Neural Networks

Unlike Linear Regression or Logistic Regression, Neural Networks can be applied to Non-linear data or data which would otherwise require to many quadratic features to classify. When there are many features, such as in machine vision problems and especially with Convolution, their combinations can quickly get out of control. NNs have been around since the '50's when they were developed as a way to mimic the operation of the brain. At that time, they were too computationally expensive, but they are making a resurgence given todays computing power.

NN simulate real "neurons" by sending messages to each other. The connections, xn, are weighted by parameters On, and the weights are tuned based on experience. There is also an input that is not from other neurons, x0, called the "bias unit" which is always set to 1. The weight on the bias unit changes the likelihood that the neuron will fire irrespective of other inputs. Note: This is still just y = mX+b. The bias unit is b, (actually x0 always set to 1, then times O0 so that matrix math is easily applied). The inputs are X (vector) and the m are the weights On.

The internal function of a single neuron in the network can be modeled by a simple Logistic unit using an "activation" or "cost" function such as the sigmoid function^ Hyperbolic Tangent^, Rectifier e.g. ReLU (Rectified Linear Unit)^, e.g. max(0,x)^ or SIREN^. In Octave:

g = 1 ./ ( 1 .+ exp(-X*theta) ) ;

Multiple Layers: NNs can have multiple layers where the top layer, directly connected to the external data inputs, is connected through to another layer, which may be connected to another, and so on before connecting to the final, output, layer. The inner layers are called hidden layers. Each neuron in a layer is normally connected to ALL the neurons in the next layer, or to one of a few neurons or even a single neuron, in the case where the next layers has fewer neurons. For a multi-class classification NN, with K classes, there would be K output units and only one would come on at a time. It is common to have a single neuron on the last, or output, layer. In that case, the computation from the last layer looks a lot like Logistic Regression. In fact, each layer is it's own set of mapping input to recognized features.

Multiple Parameter Vectors: Because there may be multiple layers, we must add a new dimension to our vector of parameters  O. The weights on a specific layer (j) may be represented by O(j) and a specific weight between node (i) of the prior layer and (i') of the next layer as Oi'i(j). The activation, or value computed for output, of a specific neuron (i) in a specific layer (j) can be represented by ai(j). ai(j) = "activation" of unit i in layer j. If a NN has sj units in layer j (not counting any bias units) and s(j+1) units in layer j+1, and each neuron is connected to every neuron in the next layer, then O(j) will be a matrix of s(j+1) by sj + 1. That last "+1" is because of the bias unit. sj is the number of units not counting the bias unit.

Example

A Neural Net with 3 inputs, x1-x3, a bias unit, x0, a hidden layer with 3 nodes, and a single output, would require the following computations:

a1(2)=g(O10(1)x0 +O11(1)x1 +O12(1)x2 +O13(1)x3)
a2(2)=g(O20(1)x0 +O21(1)x1 +O22(1)x2 +O23(1)x3)
a3(2)=g(O30(1)x0 +O31(1)x1 +O32(1)x2 +O33(1)x3)
h0(x)= a1(3)= g(O10(2)a0(2) +O11(2)a1(2) +O12(2)a2(2) +O13(2)a3(2))

Notice that the (j) superscript denotes the layer, the subscript denote the node i within that layer, and in the case of the weights, O, the first subscript is the node in the higher layer, and the second is the node in the lower layer. E.g. O10 is the weight, on a1, of x0 from the prior layer.

Using Matrix math, the computations that must take place are:

Another way of saying the same thing is:

Note: this example did not include bias units in the hidden layer.

Logic Functions

A very simple NN can be made with a single layer consisting of a single neuron with 2 binary inputs, 1 output, and manually assigned weights to compute the AND function. The hypothesis function might be: hO(X) = g( -15x0 + 10x1 + 10x2 ). Keeping in mind that x0 = 1, and that anything more than 5 is effectively 1, and less than -5 is 0 from the sigmoid function g(), we can write the output for all possible input values:

x1 x2 hO(X) = g( -15x0 + 10x1 + 10x2 )
0 0 0 = g(-15) = g(-15·1 + 10·0 + 10·0)
0 1 0 = g(-5) = g(-15·1 + 10·0 + 10·1)
1 0 0 = g(-5) = g(-15·1 + 10·1 + 10·0)
1 1 1 = g(+5) = g(-15·1 + 10·1 + 10·1)

The binary OR function would be g( -10x0 + 20x1 + 20x2 ). NOT is g( 10 - 20x1 ). Other functions can be expressed by the same basic formula simply by changing the weights. If hO(X) = g( O0x0 + O1x1 + 02x2 ) Then AND is O = [-15 10 10] and OR is O = [-10 20 20] and NOT is O = [10 -20]. NAND is O = [30 -20 -20]

Multiple layers of a NN can be assembled just like multiple gates in a digital logic circuit. For example, XOR can be made from 2 layers:
O(1) = [-15 10 10; 10 -20 -20]; O(2) = [-10 20 20]

a1(2) = g( -15x0 + 10x1 + 10x2 ) this is AND
a2(2) = g( 10x0 - 20x1 - 20x2 ) this is NOR (NOT OR)
a1(3) = g( -10a0(2) + 20a1(2) + 20a2(2) ) this is OR

The result is equivalent to XOR = (A AND B) OR NOT(A OR B) where A is x1 and B is x2

Forward Propagation Algorithm

Given a two dimensional matrix of weights for a specific layer, O(l), and the activation of that layer as a vector a(l), the activation of the next layer, l + 1 is given by:  a(l+1) = g(O(l)a(l)). Note that for l=1, the activation is actually the input vector X. However, since bias units don't get an activation, the size of the l+1 matrix may not match. We can fix this by breaking the calculation into two steps where we first calculate the activations for the real nodes in the next layer, and then add a set of bias units of value 1 to fill out all the nodes for the next cycle:

  1. z(l+1) = g( O(l)a(l) )
  2. a(l+1) = [1's z(l+1)]

Note: When propagating from one layer to the next in a NN, it's critical that the size of the matrix match, including any bias unit columns. For Matrix multiply or divide^, for A*B, the second dimension of A must match the first dimension of B, and the result will be a matrix which is the first dimension of A by the second dimension of B.
If A is n x m and B is m x p the result AB will be n x p. [n x m]*[m x p] = [n x p]

For a 2 layer NN with weights Theta1 and Theta2 for the layers, prediction can be made in Octave:

m = size(X, 1);
a1 = [ones(m, 1) X]; %add a column for bias units
z2 = sigmoid(a1 * Theta1'); %propagate to the inner layer
a2 = [ones(m, 1) z2]; %add a column for bias units
a3 = sigmoid(a2 * Theta2'); %propagate the output layer
[val, p] = max(a3, [], 2); %find the node with the highest output

Back Propagation Algorithm:

Cost Function

A cost function for a NN can be similar to that for Logistic Regression:

except that there is an additional dimension for the extra units (k). Also, because there are parameters (weights) between each node of the prior layer for each node of the next layer, there are two additional dimensions for the regularization (j,i,l) Note that we still do not include the 0th elements (the bias units) so the indexes start with 1 not 0. Don't confuse that with Octave which starts indexing from 1. In Octave, start the regularization from 2, or zero out index 1 after computing the cost before regularization.

Note this cost function is not convex and can, but rairly does, get stuck at a local minima.

To calculate this cost function, the standard code can be used, but for a classifier NN, we must convert y from individual values, into a set of sets of vectors of zeros and ones where the value is represented by a 1 in the corrisponding location. e.g. if K = 3 and y(m)=2 then class_y(m) = [0; 1; 0]. If y(m) was 1, it would be [1; 0; 0]. To do this (at least for numerical values) we use an identity matrix. In Octave, eye returns an identity matrix. E.g. eye(3) returns [1 0 0; 0 1 0; 0 0 1]. We can index that matrix on both dimensions, returning the y'th row, and all the columns in that row. e.g. eye(3)([2 3 1],:) returns [0 1 0; 0 0 1; 1 0 0] (1 in the 2nd column, 1 in the 3rd column, 1 in the 1st column).

class_y = eye(K)(y,:); %how tricky is that?
costs = -class_y .* log(a3) - (1-class_y) .* log(1-a3); J = sum(costs(:))/m; %costs is a matrix now. (:) makes a vector.

To calculate the regularization, we must compensate for there being multiple thetas, and that they are matrixs instead of vectors... and we still need to cut out the O0 elements (now called bias units). Theta1(:,2:end) gives us all the rows of Theta1, but leaves out the first column. (:) turns the resulting matrix into a vector containing all those elements. This is so the sum doesn't miss the columns and the element-wise power doesn't care. e.g. for a system with 2 layers:

reg1 = sum(Theta1(:,2:end)(:).^2);
reg2 = sum(Theta2(:,2:end)(:).^2);
J = J + (lambda/(2*m)) * (reg1+reg2);

Note that we sum all the values before multiplying by lambda and dividing by 2m.

TODO: Write a version of this that works for L layers.

Gradients

Computing the slope of the error for multiple layers is complicated by the fact that there are many parameters. Oij(l) vs simply Oj. We can think about the error of a specific node j in a specific layer l as dj(l). For the output layer L, dj(L) = aj(L) - yj  or as a vector of j nodes, d(L) = a(L) - y Because we are talking about the output layer, j must be K; the number of outputs. For the earlier layers, again, as a vector/maxtix (not showing the ij node indexes) we have  d(l) = (O(l))Td(l+1) .* g'(z(l)). Note the .* or element wise multiplication. g'(z(l)) is the derivative (note the ' or "prime" which means derivative) of the activation function g evaluated at the input functions given by z(l). Although the math to prove it is very complex, it is know that g'(z(l)) = a(l) .* (1-a(l)). There is no dj(l) for the first layer. Note that we only have the values needed to calculate the prior layers after we calculate the later layers, hence the name back propagation. Note this doesn't include regularization.

Here is the overall method for calculating the gradients in a non-matrix format; there is a loop for each training example, and the vectors inside the loop consider that example only.

Dij(l) = 0 for all l, i, j. %accumulator
for m = 1:sizeof(y) %for each training example.
   a(1) = x(m) %load that examples input
   for l = 2:L %forward through layers to output
      z(l) = g( O(l-1)a(l-1) ) %forward_propagate
     
a(l) = [1's z(l)] %add bias units
   d(L) = a(L) - y(m) %error for this examples output
   for l = L-1:2 %backward through hidden layers
      d(l) = O(l)Td(l+1) .* ( a(l).*(1-a(l)) ) %? calculate partial derivative for all i, j.  
   Dij(l) := Dij(l) + aj(l)Tdi(l+1) %accumulate partial derivatives
   % in vector form D(l) := D(l) + d(l+1) a(l)T
Dij(l) := 1/m ( Dij(l) + lambda Oij(l) ) if j is not 0
Dij(l) := 1/m Dij(l) if j is 0 %don't regularize bias term.

Note that the delta values for the backwards propagation can be calculated to simplify the matrix math, but they will be disgarded duing forward propagation. The matrix multiplication d(l+1) O(l) is summing, for example, d1(l+1) O12(l) + d2(l+1) O22(l) so again, ? we must transpose O(l) to make the matrix line up. Also, for di(l+1)aj(l) in matrix form d(l+1)a(l) we must transpose a(l)

Here is an Octave matrix implementation for a NN with 3 layers:

d3 = a3 - class_y;
d2 = d3 * Theta2(:,2:end); %dont include bias units column
d2 = d2 .* (z2 .* (1-z2)); %partial derivative
% z2 excludes bias column. Could use a2 and all Theta2 & remove first column
grad1 = (d2' * a1) ./ m; grad2 = (d3' * a2) ./ m;

Regularization

To regularize the gradients, simply scale O by lambda / m while avoiding the bias units. e.g.

Theta1(:,1) = 0; %remove bias units.
grad1 = grad1 + (Theta1 .* (lambda/m));

Regression

The theta and gradient values are no longer vectors, but are now matrixes. The D or delta's also matrix. To use standard regression algorithems like fminunc etc... we must "unroll" them into vectors. For example, in a 3 layer vector, if there are 10 units in the first two layers and 1 in the last.

thetaVec = [ Theta1(:); Theta2(:); ... ]
gradVec = [ grad1(:); grad2(:); ... ]

Theta1 = reshape(thetaVec(1:110), 10, 11]
Theta2 = reshape(thetaVec(111:220), 10, 11]
Theta3 = reshape(thetaVec(221:231), 1, 11]

Gradient Checking

This is a diagnostic technique to make sure that your implementation of the gradient part of the cost function is valid. To validate Dij(l), we can take the value of the cost curve at a point just past and just before the point and one value should be more, while the other value should be less. This should be familiar as part of the definition of how derivatives are calculated. In Octave:

s_guess = (cost(theta + e) - cost(theta - e)) / (2*e); %approximate derivative of J(theta)

We can make such an estimate for each element of a vector theta, by computing the estimate for the cost function once per element, but with only that one element being "tweaked" by e.

for i = 1:num_parms
  theta_up = theta; theta_up(i) = theta_up(i)+e;
  theta_dn = theta; theta_dn(i) = theta_dn(i)-e;
  s_guess(i) = (cost(theta_up) - cost(theta_dn)) / (2*e);

Initial Weights

If all the theta weights are set to the same value, then all the errors will be the same, and all the back propagation corrections will be the same, and so on. It is critically important that the initial values are different so they can further differentiate in the correct directions. Random values work well. The range should be some small value distributed around zero. The range can be based on the number of units in the network. e.g. sqrt(6)/sqrt(sum(s())). In Octave:

ThetaJ = rand(s(j),s(j)+1) * (2*init_e) - init_e;

Choosing a Network Architecture

Inputs: Number of features

Outputs: Number of classifications

Hidden layers: Start with one. Make each hidden layer the same size; same number of units. More units is better, but expensive. More units in the hidden layers than input.

The Gaussian Kernel SVM may be better for small feature sets ( n < 1000 ) and reasonable sample sets ( 10 < m < 10,000 ). Logistic or Linear Regression may be better for simpler problems with very large training sets or features.

Also:

See also:


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